Resources
How many people drown in Canada each year?
The Canadian Red Cross maintains records of drownings across the range of locations from bathtubs, to pools to rivers. Their most recent report shows statistics gained by examining long-term trends from 1991-2000. Click here to read the full Red Cross: Drownings in Canada Report.
What responsibility do I have to provide training for those I supervise?
Supervisors, managers and business owners should be aware of Canadian legal requirements for workplace safety, including training, that can affect them personally. (Warning: legal concepts ahead.)
Duty-of-Care
Supervisors, managers and business owners are under what is called a “duty-of-care”, which is a universal legal concept meaning “legal obligation”. Their legal obligation is to adhere to the “standard-of-care” (legal concept #2). “Standard-of-care” refers to the degree of prudence, caution or reasonable care required of an individual while engaged in any activity that could potentially harm others. Examples of this include an environmental manager assigning a fisheries technician to undertake sampling work in moving water, or a fire chief tasking members to rescue a snowmobiler who has fallen through a frozen lake or river. If a supervisor, employer or manager can be shown to have failed in their legal responsibility to adhere to the standard-of-care, they can be successfully prosecuted for “negligence” (3rd legal concept).
When it comes to any type of training, but most obviously for high-risk environments like swiftwater and surface ice or any situation requiring the use of technical rope systems, fulfilling a duty-of-care means providing training that is widely known and accepted as appropriate for the given environment, ie. standard-of-care training.
You, or one of your personnel might know a lot about moving water, or just have a lot of common sense gained from years of experience in the field. That person might even be willing to provide training free-of-charge for your department, but if you aren’t a bonafide trainer with a recognized training company, teaching a proven curriculum, then if you ever end up in court because of a liability action, it’s going to be difficult to prove you have adhered to the standard-of-care that fulfills your duty-of-care.
It might be possible to prove you’ve provided adequate training, but you will most likely spend a lot of time and money on legal bills before you manage to prove you have fulfilled your legal responsibilities to safeguard your personnel in the workplace. The unfortunate truth is that at this point, companies or organizations can be exempt from prosecution if they can show that it was the responsibility of supervisors or managers to develop a safety program for those under their supervision. In this case, supervisors and managers can be held personally liable. Scary but true.
WCB and Federal Legislation
The legal concepts outlined above form the basis of both provincial and federal legislation governing occupational health and safety. Supervisors need to start with these documents to further define their responsibilities given their workplace and the jobs being performed. However, the legislation is purposefully “broad brush” because it must be applicable to so many different situations with so many variables at play. If you search the legislation looking for required training and equipment for rivers, swiftwater, surface ice or situations requiring technical rope systems, you will come up with a very slim list of specific regulations. What you will find is broad statements such as “employers must provide to ... workers the information, instruction, training and supervision necessary to ensure the health and safety of those workers in carrying out their work.” (Worksafe BC - BC Occupational Health and Safety Amendment Act of 1998.)
Therefore, the onus is squarely on each individual supervisor to determine the potential hazards their personnel could face on the job and then develop a plan to mitigate those hazards through a combination of standard-of-care training, proper equipment, and written policies, procedures or guidelines. A comprehensive safety program like this will demonstrate “due diligence” (concept #4, in case you are still counting) or in other words, the fulfillment of the responsibility of the supervisor in meeting his duty-of-care.
However, if a supervisor outlines a safety program and is then told that there is no budget available or that employees cannot take time off their job for training, the responsibility would then shift to the superior who made that decision, and the supervisor would be seen to have fulfilled their duty-of-care. Ideally, however, supervisors will work with their management team to educate them on the legal requirements for a comprehensive safety program, their personal liability for decisions affecting safety, and then cooperate on the development of a solution that works from both a safety and financial perspective.
However, while federal and provincial legislation should provide the framework for the development of a comprehensive safety program, these lengthy documents can be difficult to navigate. We often get questions from employers and supervisors who are unclear where to start, and so we have provided excerpts of the most relevant sections of representative provincial WCB legislation as well as federal Bill C-45 in our Resources section. These excerpts should be used as a starting point for a more careful reading of the original documents, available online. Make sure to use the WCB legislation for your particular province.
Our Courses
The courses taught by Raven Rescue can help you meet your duty-of-care. Developed and certified by Rescue 3 International, the global leader in technical rescue training, our courses are considered standard-of-care because they have been thoroughly reviewed and tested by rescue professionals, safety organizations and courts around the world. Rescue 3 course have been proven, time-and-time again, to provide the training required to properly prepare people to work in high-risk environments like swiftwater, surface ice and technical rope situations.
Rescue 3 International is not the only company that provides standard-of-care training, but it is the largest and by far the best-known in Canada and around the world. This is a solid reason in itself for choosing our courses. We count among our clients federal and provincial government departments, major environmental consulting and engineering firms and the top first responders in the country. In the event of any legal action, producing a certification by Rescue 3 proves that your training is among the very best available and is solid proof that you have exercised due diligence in fulfilling your duty-of-care obligations.
Summing it All Up
In a nutshell, one resource manager described training such as swiftwater, surface ice, motorized boat handling and technical rope, ATV, firearms, bear aware, winter driving, first aid etc. .... as “CYA 101” (not a legal concept but very self-explanatory).
Relevant excerpts from provincial OSH legislation
Workers Compensation legislation exists in every province to safeguard the health and safety of workers. The following are two key excerpts from the BC Occupational Health and Safety Amendment Act of 1998. Every province has similar legislation but there are some minor variations, and so employers and employees should refer to the legislation from their particular province.
Part 3—Occupational Health and Safety
Purposes of Part
107 (1) The purpose of this Part is to benefit all citizens of British Columbia by promoting occupational health and safety and protecting workers and other persons present at workplaces from work related risks to their health and safety .....etc.
Division 3—General Duties of Employers, Workers and Others
General duties of employers
115 (1) Every employer must
(a) ensure the health and safety of
(i) all workers working for that employer, and
(ii) any other workers present at a workplace at which that employer’s work is being carried out, and
(b) comply with this Part, the regulations and any applicable orders.
(2) Without limiting subsection (1), an employer must
(a) remedy any workplace conditions that are hazardous to the health or safety of the employer’s workers,
(b) ensure that the employer’s workers
(i) are made aware of all known or reasonably foreseeable health or safety hazards to which they are likely to be exposed by their work,
(ii) comply with this Part, the regulations and any applicable orders, and
(iii) are made aware of their rights and duties under this Part and the regulations,
(c) establish occupational health and safety policies and programs in accordance with the regulations,
(d) provide and maintain in good condition protective equipment, devices and clothing as required by regulation and ensure that these are used by the employer’s workers,
(e) provide to the employer’s workers the information, instruction, training and supervision necessary to ensure the health and safety of those workers in carrying out their work and to ensure the health and safety of other workers at the workplace,
(f) make a copy of this Act and the regulations readily available for review by the employer’s workers and, at each workplace where workers of the employer are regularly employed, post and keep posted a notice advising where the copy is available for review,
(g) consult and cooperate with the joint committees and worker health and safety representatives for workplaces of the employer, and
(h) cooperate with the board, officers of the board and any other person carrying out a duty under this Part or the regulations.
General duties of workers
116 (1) Every worker must
(a) take reasonable care to protect the worker’s health and safety and the health and safety of other persons who may be affected by the worker’s acts or omissions at work, and
(b) comply with this Part, the regulations and any applicable orders.
(2) Without limiting subsection (1), a worker must
(a) carry out his or her work in accordance with established safe work procedures as required by this Part and the regulations,
(b) use or wear protective equipment, devices and clothing as required by the regulations,
(c) not engage in horseplay or similar conduct that may endanger the worker or any other person,
(d) ensure that the worker’s ability to work without risk to his or her health or safety, or to the health or safety of any other person, is not impaired by alcohol, drugs or other causes,
(e) report to the supervisor or employer
(i) any contravention of this Part, the regulations or an applicable order of which the worker is aware, and
(ii) the absence of or defect in any protective equipment, device or clothing, or the existence of any other hazard, that the worker considers is likely to endanger the worker or any other person,
(f) cooperate with the joint committee or worker health and safety representative for the workplace, and
(g) cooperate with the board, officers of the board and any other person carrying out a duty under this Part or the regulations.
Federal Bill C-45 and its implications for employers
What is Bill C-45?
Bill C-45 is federal legislation that amends the Canadian Criminal Code. Bill C-45 became law on March 31, 2004 and is now the new Section 217.1 in the Criminal Code which reads:
“2.17.1 Every one who undertakes, or has the authority, to direct how another person does work or performs a task is under a legal duty to take reasonable steps to prevent bodily harm to that person, or any other person, arising from that work or task.”
The bill established new legal duties for workplace health and safety, and imposes serious penalties for violations that result in injuries or death. It also establishes rules for attributing criminal liability to organizations, including corporations, for the acts of their representatives and also creates a legal duty for all persons directing work to take “reasonable steps” to ensure the safety of workers and the public.
Why was Bill C-45 (Section 217.1 in the Criminal Code) created?
Bill C-45, also known as the “Westray Bill”, was created as a result of the 1992 Westray coal mining disaster in Nova Scotia where 26 miners were killed after methane gas ignited causing an explosion. Despite serious safety concerns raised by employees, union officials and government inspectors at the time, the company instituted few changes. Eventually, the disaster occurred.
After the accident the police and provincial government failed to secure a conviction against the company or three of its managers. A Royal Commission of Inquiry was established to investigate the disaster. In 1998, the Royal Commission made 74 recommendations. The findings of this commission (in particular recommendation 73) were the movement that led to Bill C-45.
What are the main provisions of Bill C-45 (Section 217.1 in the Criminal Code)?
Bill C-45 (Section 217.1 in the Criminal Code):
- Created rules for establishing criminal liability to organizations for the acts of their representatives.
- Establishes a legal duty for all persons “directing the work of others” to take reasonable steps to ensure the safety of workers and the public.
- Sets out the factors that courts must consider when sentencing an organization.
- Provides optional conditions of probation that a court may impose on an organization.
Who does this Criminal Code affect?
This Criminal Code affects all organizations and individuals who direct the work of others, anywhere in Canada. These organizations include federal, provincial and municipal governments, corporations, private companies, charities and non-governmental organizations.
Who is responsible for enforcing this Criminal Code?
Police and crown attorneys enforce Bill C-45. The police and crown are responsible for investigating serious accidents and will determine whether any charges should be laid under the Canadian Criminal Code. The criminal code is a very different set of rules, and should not be confused with “regular” occupational health and safety laws (OH&S) and how they are enforced.
Who is responsible for enforcing occupational health and safety laws?
Depending on your jurisdiction, the Ministry (or Department) of Labour or Workers’ Compensation Board (WCB) enforces OH&S laws. Across Canada each province, territory and the federal government are responsible for enforcing their own individual set of occupational health and safety laws. Each jurisdiction employs inspectors who visit workplaces to ensure companies are complying with their OH&S rules. In the unfortunate event of a serious accident, these inspectors conduct an investigation and determine if a charge should be laid under the appropriate section(s) of the OH&S act or regulation. An accused individual or company may then need to appear in court where a fine or other penalty could be imposed if they are convicted. The police are not normally involved in this process.
Does Bill C-45 (Section 217.1 in the Criminal Code) impact on other legislation?
No. Bill C-45 is a separate piece of legislation that applies to the Canadian Criminal Code only. It does not intrude upon, or override, other existing federal, provincial or territorial occupational health and safety statutes and regulations. In the event of a conviction; however, Bill C-45 does require the courts to look at any penalties imposed by other jurisdictions in determining a sentence.
Can a company be charged under a provincial OH&S act and the Criminal Code at the same time?
Not likely. According to the Charter of Rights and Freedoms, a party cannot be charged for the same offence twice—whether found guilty or acquitted. This rule against multiple convictions for the same offence is known as “double jeopardy”.
What types of offences will be targeted?
It is unclear at this time. To date we are only aware of two cases, where individuals were charged under the new provisions in the Criminal Code. In both cases, these charges were later dropped.
Note: At the time the law was being discussed in parliament, the government commented on its intentions for the Bill stating that:
“the criminal law must be reserved for the most serious offences, those that involve grave moral faults… the Government does not intend to use the federal criminal law power to supplant or interfere with the provincial regulatory role in workplace health and safety”
These comments may serve to help guide authorities in their application of the law, but they do not in of themselves constitute the law. Once a law is passed, it is up to the police, crown attorneys and the courts to interpret and apply the law based on the Criminal Code and previous cases under common law.
Has anyone been charged?
Yes. To date there have been three cases where charges have been laid, though, only one case resulted in a conviction. The other two cases were withdrawn.
On March 17, 2008 a paving company (Transpave) was convicted of criminal negligence and fined $100,000 in the death of an employee. The conviction was based on the new provisions of Bill C-45 in the Criminal Code of Canada.
On April 19, 2004 near the city of Newmarket, Ontario a worker was killed after the ground around him collapsed while digging a ditch at a residential construction site. The construction site supervisor was charge under section 217.1 of the Criminal Code with one count of criminal negligence causing death. In March 2005 the charges of criminal negligence against the site supervisor were dropped in an apparent plea bargain which saw the supervisor agree to three of eight charges under the Ontario Occupational Health and Safety Act.
In the other case, in June 2002 near Calabogie, Ontario, two people were killed when a gate to a hydroelectric dam was opened, causing a flood. Two supervisors were acquitted of criminal negligence causing death in 2006.
How can I ensure a safe workplace and limit my liability?
Employers can limit their liability and reduce the chances of being charged under the provisions of the Criminal Code by implementing an effective workplace health and safety program.
You will want to know:
- what your legal obligations are under occupational health and safety laws and standards,
- what hazards exist in your workplace, and
- how to effectively reduce or eliminate them.
You will also want to ensure employees are aware of the company’s health and safety program, are informed of any risks, and receive appropriate training and protective equipment.
Below are some OSH Answer documents that may help. They are available online. You may also want to consider hiring a health and safety consultant to assist you with this process. http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/
OH&S Legislation in Canada - Introduction
OH&S Legislation in Canada - Basic Responsibilities
OH&S Legislation in Canada - Internal Responsibility System
OH&S Legislation in Canada - Due Diligence
Elements of a Health and Safety Program
Basic OH&S Program Elements
Job Hazard Analysis
Risk Assessment
Inspection Checklists - General Information
Guide to Writing an OSH Policy Statement
For further information, review our other OSH Answers documents at:
http://www.ccohs.ca/oshanswers/hsprograms/
Where can I find a copy of the Criminal Code?
Criminal Code of Canada:
http://laws.justice.gc.ca/en/C-46/index.html
Plain Language Guide: Bill C-45 - Amendments To The Criminal Code Affecting The Criminal Liability Of Organizations:
http://www.justice.gc.ca/eng/dept-min/pub/c45/
Document last updated on December 1, 2008
WCB Guidelines for Cold Water Immersion
WCB offers the following scenarios and guidelines as critical information for those working near, in or on cold water.
A True Story
On a November night, a crab fishing boat was off B.C.‘s north coast. The crewmembers were re-baiting a crab pot on deck when the vessel took a port turn. They had been pulling traps on the starboard side, leaving the buoy line in the water. The line became caught in the propeller and started to pull the trap off the table. One of the crew reached for the trap as it slid over the side of the boat and was pulled into the water with it. As he entered the water, he let go of the trap and remained at the surface. Lines and floating objects were thrown well within his reach but he made no attempt to hold onto them.
The crewmember was finally pulled on board after about 11 minutes in the water. He was unconscious and could not be revived. Neither he nor the other crewmembers were wearing a personal flotation device (PFD), life jacket, or immersion suit. The water temperature was 9°C (48°F).
Cold water is deadly
Drowning is the number one cause of death in B.C.‘s fishing industry. It is also a major cause of death wherever people must work on or near the water, such as on tugboats. One of the reasons for these high fatality rates is the cold temperature of our waters. Accident investigations have shown again and again that a person’s physical fitness or ability to swim in warm water will not save him or her from drowning in cold water. Hypothermia can be a factor but that takes time - usually more than 30 minutes. The killing factor is often that first shock of cold water on the body.
Cold water is defined as water below 25°C but the greatest effects occur below 15°C. Our waters are usually below 15°C. As the fatal crab fishing accident shows, the effects are so powerful that you may not be able to help yourself. Exposure to cold water changes how your body functions. The first shock takes your breath away. Within a few minutes, your hands are so cold you cannot hold onto anything. You cannot pull yourself out of the water. Swimming becomes difficult or impossible as your breathing and muscles are affected by the cold. Eventually hypothermia sets in. Even if you are rescued, you may still die.
Keep yourself safe by being aware of what could happen to you in cold water. Know what to do to prevent you or other crewmembers from falling into the water and what to do if that occurs.
What happens when you fall into cold water
The effects of cold water on the body happen in four stages (described on pages 2 - 3). Cold shock (stage 1) and swimming failure (stage 2) are responsible for more drowning fatalities in B.C. than hypothermia (stage 3) or post-rescue collapse (stage 4).
Anyone who works on, near, or over the water is at risk
Ironworkers were using a jet boat to pull a cable across a fast-moving river. The cable became lodged on the river bottom, anchoring the boat by the stern. Water poured onto the boat, and the two workers jumped into the river. Neither was wearing a flotation device. Only one was able to swim to shore.
If you work on or near lakes, rivers, or the ocean, you could be in danger. Lakes and rivers in B.C. are usually at temperatures similar to the ocean (below 15°C) and may be even colder in winter. Use safe work practices wherever you are.
- Always wear a PFD, life jacket, or immersion suit when working on or near water (wherever there is a risk of drowning).
- Ensure that the equipment used for a specific procedure has been designed to perform that procedure.
- Make sure you have an effective means to call for help when working in remote locations.
- Use fall arrest equipment when working on bridges or over the side of vessels.
Cold shock
Cold shock occurs immediately - as you enter the cold water. It lasts three to five minutes but it can result in quick drowning because of the way the body reacts. You cannot control these reactions:
- A large intake of breath
- A rapid increase in breathing rate (up to four times as fast)
- A reduced ability to hold your breath (to as little as 10 seconds)
- A massive increase in heart rate and blood pressure
Drowning may result from cold shock reactions. If your head goes below the surface, you might breathe in water with that first large intake of breath. As little as half a cup of water in your lungs can cause drowning. Problems with breathing can lead to panic, which only reduces your chance of survival.
You are most likely to survive stage 1 if you:
- Do not inhale water
- Stay afloat
- Keep your head above water
- A PFD, life jacket, or immersion suit is essential.
Swimming failure
Swimming failure occurs after you have been in cold water for 5 to 30 minutes. Its effects include:
- Loss of manual dexterity
- Inability to match breathing rate to swimming stroke
- Loss of coordination in the muscles in your arms and legs as they get cooler, increasing your swimming angle
- Increased swimming angle, requiring more energy to keep your head above water
Drowning
Being a good swimmer in warm water will not help you in cold water. In warm water, a swimmer takes one breath per stroke. In cold water, the breathing rate and stroke rate increase but not together. Your muscles and joints also get stiffer in the cold water and your strokes get shorter. These changes result in an increase in the body’s swimming angle, with more of your body farther under the water instead of near the surface. There is now more drag on your body, and you must use more energy to swim. Finally, your swimming strokes become totally uncoordinated and ineffective, and you may drown.
Hypothermia
You have probably already heard about the effects of hypothermia. Hypothermia is the cooling of your body’s core. It affects your brain, heart, and other internal organs. Your body begins to cool as soon as you enter the water, but the full effect of hypothermia usually takes at least 30 minutes. The effects of hypothermia are:
- A reduction of blood flow to the hands, feet, and surface of the body
- Intense shivering, in the early stages, as the body tries to maintain body core temperature
- Lack of shivering in the later stages
- Loss of consciousness
- Heart failure
The body loses heat four times faster in water than in air. As the body cools, the will to survive decreases. Eventually you lose consciousness and drown, or your heart fails.
Post-rescue collapse
The effects on your body after you are pulled from the water can include the following:
- Loss of hydrostatic pressure from the water causes a sudden drop in blood pressure. This can cause heart or brain failure.
- Your heart is cold and cannot pump cold blood effectively to maintain blood pressure.
- Your lungs are damaged from the water you inhaled. This can cause a pneumonia-like illness.
- Fatal bleeding from injuries may occur as your body warms up and your blood flows more freely. You may have internal injuries or injuries to your head and neck that you and your rescuers are not aware of.
People should be recovered from cold water horizontally rather than vertically. Rescue may not mean survival, however. Up to 20 percent of all survivors die during rescue or shortly after.
How to avoid cold water immersion
The key to dealing with the risks of sudden, unexpected cold water immersion is to stay out of the water. If you do fall in, do not breathe in water, do not panic, and keep as much of your body out of the water as possible.
Stay out of the water
- Arrange the vessel’s decks and work procedures to reduce the risk of crew entering the water. Install guard rails where it is practical and where they do not create hazards associated with the fishing process. For example, salmon trollers could set up rails along the sides of the vessel since fishing takes place at the stern.
- Keep work areas free of slipping or tripping hazards. Many people have fallen overboard while drawing water with a pail or urinating over the rail when the vessel was under way. When doing either of these activities, hold onto the vessel with one hand at all times.
- Wear an immersion suit, PFD, or life jacket
- If there is a risk of entering the water, be prepared to stay afloat to survive the effects of cold shock, reduce the need to swim, and give rescuers time to react. Wearing a flotation device can be the difference between living and dying because it can hold your head above water. It also helps to maintain your body temperature. Immersion suits also provide a large, bright target for rescuers to see.
Using a PFD, life jacket, or immersion suit
Many different types of PFDs, life jackets, and immersion suits are available. For example, PFDs with automatic inflators provide excellent flotation in a small, lightweight, unrestrictive package. Immersion suits (survival suits) are required by provincial regulation for each crewmember on every commercial fishing vessel. Carrying immersion suits is good policy for all vessels and anyone working on or near cold water. Remember to stow them in an accessible location and to practise putting them on.
Immersion suits may be too bulky to work in, but they save lives when the crew or other workers have enough warning to get the suits on before they find themselves in the water. An immersion suit helps you conserve body heat and keeps you afloat, greatly increasing the likelihood that you will survive. See WorkSafe Bulletin WS 04-06 for more information on immersion suits.
Develop and practise rescue procedures
A person who is unprotected by a flotation device can drown very quickly - in as little as three minutes. The master of a vessel must ensure that suitable equipment is on board and that the crew regularly practises emergency procedures to rescue a crewmember overboard. Every vessel should have the means for a person to get back on board as soon as possible. All crewmembers should know how to:
- Get back on board quickly if they fall in the water
- Recover someone quickly who has fallen overboard
- Perform first aid safely on someone who may be suffering from near-drowning or hypothermia
- Abandon ship safely
If you must abandon ship, try to avoid entering the water. Develop procedures that allow crew to go directly into life rafts to avoid getting wet. Make sure to put on immersion suits, PFDs, or life jackets.
The effects of sudden, unexpected cold water immersion are deadly. Be prepared!
Check out this link to a great Canadian website with valuable information on choosing and wearing PFDs. www.wearalifejacket.com
Avoiding Foot Entrapment
You can’t clearly see what’s under the water. Rocks, logs and other obstacles can be waiting there to trap a dangling foot. When this happens in moving water, there usually isn’t time to remove the foot. The current pushes the swimmer down, often holding their head underwater and usually resulting in a drowning. Having on a PFD usually doesn’t save you; the force of the water can overwhelm that flotation.
Years ago I saw a whitewater safety film that vividly illustrated this accident scenario. In an enactment of a foot entrapment, a panicked swimmer is flailing around in swift current. His foot is caught and he is forced down, face forward. Then, the scene switches to a camera suspended above the stream. The swimmer is horizontal, arms outstretched, completely submerged, yet visible through the clear water. I can still perfectly picture that scene; it has kept my feet up high ever since!
Saving someone in this situation is very difficult and rarely successful. You have only a very few minutes to reach a person whose head is under water. Sometimes a line stretched across the stream can help support the victim’s head above water until a rescue to remove the foot can be made. This technique, along with wading out to the victim assisted by a paddle or with the help of other boaters, is illustrated and explained in the Whitewater Rescue Manual by Charlie Wallbridge and in Swiftwater Rescue by Ray. These are advanced techniques that are best learned and practiced while taking a swiftwater rescue class. See our Safety and Rescue Discussion Group article for tips on finding swiftwater rescue instruction.
As with most accidents, prevention is the best solution. When you find yourself in the water, it’s usually best to assume the “swimming safety position”: on your back, with feet up and facing downstream. This allows you to look downstream and push off any rocks or other obstacles with your feet. You can backstroke at an angle to the current and work your way to shore or into an eddy. If the water is deep enough and you need to move more quickly, you can roll over on your stomach and swim aggressively to avoid danger or get to shore. Again, always keep your feet up to avoid entrapment.
The basic rule is: never stand up or put your feet down in the water, unless the water depth is below your knees or the water is calm. Sometimes swimming is unavoidable. However, staying calm, working to self-rescue and remembering this basic rule can usually keep you out of trouble.
Re-printed from NRS e-news. For more great articles on safety and rivers, see the NRS website archives.
Know the Ropes
Until high-quality synthetic fibers like polypropylene, nylon and polyester were developed in the 1950s and 60s, most ropes used for outdoor activities like boating and climbing were made from natural fibers. As you can see from the information below, synthetics have revolutionized safety and rescue rope application and techniques. Information in this article was provided by Sam Morton, Rescue/Safety Manager for Sterling Rope Company.
Rope Construction
The rope construction used for most modern rescue and climbing ropes is referred to as “kernmantle.” The braided sheath (mantle) surrounds and protects the twisted parallel core (kern) fibers.
Ropes for different applications have their own unique design for maximum performance. Matching design with construction becomes a balancing act that leads to many considerations: how much it can stretch, its ability to absorb impact, strength, handling qualities and durability.
Important characteristics for ropes used in many boating applications are: ability to float, visibility and strength. Water has a specific gravity (SG) of 1.0, so anything with an SG less than that floats in it and those with a higher SG sink in it. Polypropylene and its derivatives have a specific gravity less than 1.0, making them ideal for throw ropes. Our floating rescue ropes are all brightly colored, in yellow, red or a combination of the two colors.
Ultra High Molecular Weight Polyethylene (UHMWP) fiber has an extraordinarily high tensile strength and relatively low stretch. Dyneema® and Spectra® are trade names for this fiber. Pound for pound, it’s stronger than steel. It’s used in our high-strength rescue ropes, increasing the strength of similar diameter standard polypropylene ropes over 2.5 times. It also has a SG less than 1.0, so it floats. You’ll notice that this fiber is only used as the core (kern) of our ropes. The main reason for this is that UHMWP is very slippery and won’t hold a knot. Polypropylene, which does hold a good knot, is used for the sheath (mantle) of these high-strength ropes.
Not all rescue ropes need to float. Our ½” Sterling Static Rope, which is also used in the NRS Z-Drag Kit, is made of 100% polyester fiber. Important characteristics of polyester for this application are that it is hydrophobic (fibers don’t absorb water, which can weaken a rope) and it has very low stretch. The low stretch factor makes this rope very efficient in a Z-drag application. The definition of “static rope” is a rope with a maximum elongation of 6% at 10% of its minimum breaking strength.
NFPA Certified
A term you see on some of our ropes is “NFPA Certified.” The National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) is a non-profit organization that sets standards for much of the equipment used by fire fighting and rescue agencies. They don’t do the actual testing; that is done by third party organizations such as Underwriters Laboratories (UL). Many rescue agencies require the use of NFPA Certified rope and hardware in their work.
Care and Storage of Rope
Rope used during boating gets wet, of course, and gets dirty. After a trip, rinse your ropes in clean water and allow to dry before putting them away. Store your ropes in a cool, dry place away from chemicals and direct sunlight.
Regularly inspect your ropes. Do this visually and by sliding the rope through your hands. If the rope is excessively abraded or you have core coming through the sheath, it is time to retire the rope.
Knots and Strength Loss
The fibers in ropes, in the kern and in the mantle, are oriented to line up with the length of the rope, for maximum strength. The measure of this strength is commonly referred to as “tensile strength.” They have low flexural strength, meaning they are not strong along their horizontal axis, which is why ropes lose significant amounts of strength when tied in knots. This loss of strength occurs when a rope is bent, as in a knot or going through a carabiner or pulley. Four inches is the magic number for maintaining full strength in a rope. Any bend tighter than four inches reduces the rope’s strength. Common knots used in rescue situations can reduce a rope’s strength by 20-40%.
Know the Knots
At the basic level, here’s a selection of knots, bends and hitches that anyone working in high risk environments like swiftwater, surface ice or with rope systems should know. You should be able to tie them quickly and properly, and recognize them when others have tied them into systems.
- the “Family of 8’s”
- double fisherman’s
- muenter
You should also understand the following concepts and systems:
- tensile strengths of rope and webbing
- anchors (simple to complex)
- mechanical advantage (3 to 1, 4 to 1, pig rig)
Here’s one of our favourite online references for practicing your knots - the illustrations move!
But our instructors all agree: don’t get caught up in the fancy stuff. Practice your knots so that you tie them quickly, and recognize them when others tie them, and you’ll be in a good position to maximize your learning during a course, or contribute to rope work on the job.
Safety Guide for Operations Over Ice
This occupational health and safety guide published by the Treasury Board of Canada is intended to provide information to assist departments and agencies in establishing programs for the prevention of work-related accidents, injuries and illnesses. It is of wide interest and applicability to those who work on surface ice, including frozen lakes, rivers and ice bridges.
1. Introduction
1.1 General
1.1.1 Ice covers are used for transportation routes, as a surface on which structures can be erected, and for the temporary storage of materials.
1.1.2 This guide is concerned primarily with fresh water ice bridges, which are intended to support a gross vehicle weight of no more than 25 tons (22.5 tonnes). An ice bridge can be a natural untouched ice cover, a built-up, or a combined reinforced and built-up crossing route.
1.1.3 When loads are expected to exceed 25 tons (22.5 tonnes) or when operations will be conducted over salt water ice covers, advice should be sought from the Geotechnical Section, Division of Building Research, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, K1A 0R6.
1.1.4 Information on the safe use of ice covers for aircraft operations is available from Transport Canada.
1.2 Purpose
1.2.1 The purpose of this safety guide is to:
(a) specify rules of good safety practice for all Public Service employees engaged in operations on ice covers;
(b) provide information on the thickness of ice required to support moving and stationary loads;
(c) specify methods for determining ice thickness and quality; and
(d) outline approved methods for the preparation and maintenance of ice bridges.
2. Properties of ice covers
2.1 Ice formation
2.1.1 Ice forms on fresh water when the surface temperature falls to zero degrees Celsius, or at lower temperatures if dissolved impurities are present. While the underside of the ice cover in contact with the water will remain close to the melting temperature, the upper surface will be nearer to the surrounding air temperature.
2.1.2 The date of annual freeze-up, the rate of ice growth, and the quality of the ice cover depend on various factors such as air temperature, solar radiation, wind speed, snow cover, wave action, currents, and the size and depth of the water body. Generally, small lakes and slow-moving streams freeze over earlier than larger lakes or fast moving streams.
2.1.3 While there are many different types of ice, the two types of major concern are:
(a) clear ice - formed by the freezing of water;
(b) snow ice - formed when water-saturated snow freezes on top of ice, making an opaque white ice which is not as strong as clear ice.
2.2 Ice colour
2.2.1 The colour of ice, which may range from blue to white to grey, provides an indication of its quality and strength:
(a) clear blue ice is generally the strongest;
(b) white opaque ice (snow ice) has a relatively high air content, and its strength depends on the density: the lower the density the weaker the ice; but high density white ice has a strength approaching that of blue ice;
(c) grey ice generally indicates the presence of water as a result of thawing, and must be considered highly suspect as a load-bearing surface.
2.3 Ice thickness
2.3.1 The other major factor determining the bearing capability of ice is its thickness. Care must be taken when determining the thickness of ice covers to ensure that the readings are properly taken and are an accurate representation of the area under consideration.
2.3.2 Currents have a distinct bearing on the temperature required to form ice. Rivers and channels with strong currents may remain open all winter despite low air temperatures. Springs can cause currents, and also be the source of warmer water; currents can also cause variations in ice thickness without changing the uniform surface characteristics.
2.3.3 When selecting the site of an ice bridge, currents and springs should be located and avoided. Frequent checks of the ice thickness should be made in areas suspected of being affected by currents.
2.3.4 Ice under an insulating snow blanket thickens very slowly even in low temperatures. A heavy snow cover, before significant ice growth, may cause the ice to remain unsafe throughout the winter.
3. Bearing capability of ice
3.1 General
3.1.1 The load bearing capacity of ice covers depends on the quality of ice, its thickness, ice and air temperatures, temperature changes and solar radiation.
3.1.2 Clear blue ice is the standard of quality against which other types of ice are compared. White opaque ice, or snow ice, is normally considered to be only half as strong.
3.1.3 Ice covers may consist of alternate layers of clear ice and snow ice, and each layer should be measured so that the effective thickness may be calculated. For example, an ice cover with a total thickness of 8 inches (20 cm) consisting of a 4 inch (10 cm) layer of clear ice and a 4 inch (10 cm) layer of snow ice would have an effective thickness of 6 inches (15 cm).
3.1.4 The strength of ice is generally increased by low temperatures. The increase is progressive from zero to minus eighteen degrees Celsius and remains fairly constant below this point. However, a marked drop in temperature can temporarily cause internal stress in an ice cover and reduce its bearing capacity. This can often occur during overnight periods when the temperature is much lower than the preceding average for the day.
3.1.5 The removal of snow from an ice cover during periods of low temperature has an effect similar to a marked temperature drop. The bearing capacity of ice should be considered to be reduced by 50 per cent for 24 hours after these conditions.
3.2 Determining ice thickness
3.2.1 Prior to use, the ice should be measured to determine whether its effective thickness is adequate to support the expected load. The graph presented in Appendix A should be used as a guide to the required thickness for the loads involved.
3.2.2 To initially determine effective ice thickness, the rule of thumb “one inch (2.5 cm) of clear blue ice for every thousand pounds (450 kg)” may be used.
Caution
Ice that is less than six inches (15 cm) thick should not be used for any crossing. Because of natural variations, thickness may be less than 2 inches (5 cm) in some areas.
3.2.3 The effective thickness can vary considerably in an ice cover. In particular, dangerously thin areas can occur due to currents in the covers of rivers and estuaries, and on lakes near the inlet or outlet of rivers and streams. Careful attention should be given to reduced ice thickness close to shorelines and around ridges and leads.
3.2.4 The thickness can be determined by drilling test holes spaced at a maximum of 50 feet (15 m) apart in rivers, and 100 feet (30 m) apart on a lake.
3.2.5 Crossings should be checked for ice thickness once a week when average air temperatures vary between -15 and -5 degrees Celsius; and daily when the temperature is above -5 degrees Celsius. Checks can be less frequent when ice thickness substantially exceeds requirements. A new hole should be drilled for each ice measurement.
3.2.6 Ice that is no longer supported by water, due to lowering water levels, may be too weak to support the loads to be applied; conversely, a rising water level can result in the formation of two ice layers with an intervening water layer. Ice thickness tests will reveal these conditions.
3.3 Parked and stationary loads
3.3.1 Ice behaves elastically under moving loads; that is, the ice is depressed while loaded but recovers its original position after the load has passed.
3.3.2 With a stationary load the ice surface will sag continuously and may fail, depending on the strength of the ice cover. The safe bearing capability for stationary loads should be considered to be 50 per cent less than that for moving loads.
3.3.3 The sequence of failure for stationary loads is as follows:
(a) radiating cracks form at the bottom of the cover immediately beneath the load (and ultimately propagate through the cover);
(b) circular cracks form at the upper surface of the cover at some distance from the load (noticeable sagging of the ice may occur);
(c) the ice shears in a circle immediately adjacent to the loaded surface (failure may be imminent).
3.3.4 The initial radial cracks may not be of immediate concern if the load bearing capacity of the ice is substantially higher than the load. However, prolonged application of the load should cause concern about possible ice failure.
3.3.5 Stationary loads should be moved under any of the following conditions:
(a) when radial cracks develop;
(b) if noticeable sagging is observed;
(c) if the rate of sagging increases;
(d) if continuous cracking is heard or observed;
(e) if water appears on the surface of the cover.
3.3.6 The accumulation of drifted snow, often caused by stationary loads, may mask the indicators listed in paragraph 3.3.5 as well as increase the static load on the ice. Vehicles should be parked at least 5 lengths apart and in such a way that snow drifts do not interfere with other vehicles.
3.4 Effects of speed
3.4.1 When a vehicle travels over an ice cover, a hydrodynamic or resonance wave is set up in the underlying water. This wave travels at a speed that depends upon the depth of the water, the thickness of the cover and the degree of elasticity of the ice. If the speed of the vehicle coincides with that of the hydrodynamic wave, the stress on the cover due to the wave reinforces that due to the vehicle, and can increase the maximum stress in the ice to the point of failure. The wave action tends to crack the ice in a checkerboard pattern.
3.4.2 Particular care should be exercised when approaching or travelling close to shore, or over shallow water, because of more severe stressing of the cover due to reflection of the hydrodynamic wave. Roads and vehicle approaches should meet the shoreline at an angle of not less than 45 degrees.
3.4.3 If the weight of a loaded vehicle is one-half or less than that determined from Figure 1 as safe for the thickness of the ice being used, speed is not critical. When the weight is greater, and for ice thickness less than 30 inches (75 cm), speed should be carefully controlled and in general be kept below 10 m/h (15 km/h).
3.5 Cracks
3.5.1 The ice usually has many cracks made by thermal contraction or movements of the ice cover. Except at the thaw period cracks do not necessarily indicate a reduction in the load-bearing capability of the cover.
3.5.2 A dry crack with an opening of less than 1/8 inch (0.32 cm), which does not penetrate very deeply into the ice cover, will not cause serious weakening. Where a single dry crack in excess of one inch (2.5 cm) is noted, loads should be reduced by one third; for intersecting cracks of this size the loads should be reduced by two thirds. Dry cracks should be repaired by filling with water or slush.
3.5.3 A wet crack indicates that the crack penetrates completely through the ice cover and therefore affects the load bearing capacity, which should be reduced by one-half in the case of a single wet crack. If two wet cracks meet at right angles the reduction is to one-quarter of that for a good cover. Most wet cracks refreeze as strong as the original ice cover; however a core sample should be taken to ascertain the depth of healing.
3.5.4 Due to normal thermal contraction, cracks sometimes form at the middle of a road in the direction of travel; but these do not seriously reduce the bearing capability if they remain dry. If cracks form parallel to the road, at the sides, they do indicate over-stressing (perhaps by snow deposits from clearing operations) and possible fatigue due to excessive traffic. If such cracks develop, particularly if they are wet, road use should cease at once, and not be recommenced until the cracks are healed.
3.5.5 Fluctuating water levels may produce cracks near and generally parallel to the shoreline. These cracks are often accompanied by a difference in the levels of the floating and the grounded ice. If these cracks are wet, loads should be reduced accordingly. With extreme level differences, appropriate bridging repair (flooding, reinforcing) may be necessary.
3.6 Spring thaw
3.6.1 Ice covers will begin to decay in the spring as the ice warms and begins to melt. The ice will thaw in the sunlight, but in the early spring may refreeze at night. Intensive thawing begins only in atmospheric temperatures above freezing.
3.6.2 Snow is a poorer thermal conductor than ice. A covering of 3 to 4 inches (7.5 to 10 cm) of clean snow on an ice bridge will reduce significantly the solar radiation penetrating the cover, thus prolonging the period of use.
3.6.3 Travel over an ice bridge displaying water on the surface should be executed with great caution and only if absolutely necessary. If mild weather continues and the water disappears, it may indicate that the ice is honey-combed, in which case the use of the area as an ice bridge should be discontinued immediately.
3.6.4 If the average air temperature has been above zero degrees Celsius for three days or more, then use of an ice-bridge should cease.
4. Preparation of ice bridges
4.1 Building techniques
4.1.1 A marked route over a natural ice cover can be utilized as an ice bridge, but since this may not provide sufficient strength for repetitive use, various techniques may be used to increase the safe load-bearing capability.
4.1.2 When temperatures are low and early winter use is not required, ice thickness can be increased by keeping the intended crossing snow-free, or by compacting the snow so that its normal insulating qualities are diminished. The natural rate of ice growth will thus be accelerated and the required thickness will eventually be reached.
4.1.3 If there is a need for a bridge when temperatures are not low enough to obtain the necessary natural thickness by the time of required use, the ice thickness can be increased by flooding: adding water on top of the existing ice cover.
4.2 Flooding
4.2.1 The flooding operation is normally carried out with small lightweight pumps, rather than larger pumps which are less portable.
4.2.2 Flooding may be started as soon as the natural ice is about 3 inches (7.5 cm) thick and strong enough to bear the weight of persons and pumps. The initial flooding should be limited to a depth of about one inch (2.5 cm).
4.2.3 Subsequent floodings for “lifts” should be limited to that depth of water that will freeze within 12 hours. As a rule of thumb, an average air temperature of -18 degrees Celsius will freeze 2 inches (5 cm) of water overnight. With average temperatures of -31 degrees Celsius or lower, lifts may be increased to 3 1/2 inches (9 cm). Wind or snow on the surface will increase or decrease the freezing rate respectively.
4.2.4 Thicker lifts can lead to a layer of water between the old ice surface and the new layer of ice. When covered by succeeding lifts of warm water, this layer may not freeze until well after the bridge has been completed. Such lifts may also overload and crack the existing ice cover.
4.2.5 To achieve maximum strength in the bridge, any snow cover should, if possible, be removed before each flooding operation. However, dragging or packing the snow to an even thickness and then flooding - “slushing” - provides a thicker sheet in less time but the resulting ice is not as strong.
4.2.6 If banks of snow are constructed on each side of the bridge to contain the flooding, they should be at least 150 feet (45 metres) apart; however, a 200 foot (60 metre) wide bridge is preferable.
4.2.7 Snow banks may leak after freezing has begun so that a crust of ice is formed with an air-filled void between it and the initial ice cover.
4.2.8 Flooding should take place from the bridge centre line, letting the water feather out to seek its own level. This method also provides a wider bridge surface.
4.2.9 Ice formed by the flooding process will be stress-free if each lift is allowed to become completely frozen before the next flooding.
4.3 Reinforcement
4.3.1 An ice bridge built in more temperate climates or intended for repeated use may be reinforced with grasses, brush or logs. Such a bridge can then take a greater load for the same thickness, being held together by the reinforcing inclusions. It can heal itself more easily after cracking and is less likely to fail catastrophically.
4.3.2 One disadvantage to reinforcement is the added time and effort required for construction. Another is the effect of local radiational heating of the reinforcing inclusions, particularly during the spring thaw, which will increase the rate of decay of the bridge.
4.3.3 It is preferable to locate the reinforcing items in the bottom portion of the final ice bridge; they should be placed and frozen in as early as possible.
4.3.4 Reinforcing logs, properly placed in an ice bridge, will make possible a reduction of ice thickness of up to 25 per cent.
4.4 Maintenance
4.4.1 On completion, the following rules should be observed in order to increase the safety and life of the ice bridge:
(a) The bridge must be kept clear of excessive snow, and the snow banks kept well back, with slopes of no more than a ratio of 1 to 5. The weight of snow banks can weaken the ice underneath and form relatively deep ditches by slow sagging, and therefore should be levelled out if higher than 3 feet (1 metre) or two thirds of the ice thickness, whichever is the larger.
(b) A covering of 3 to 4 inches (7.5 to 10 cm) of compacted snow will give good traction and will also provide a cushion. Glare or snow-free ice breaks up rapidly under traffic in extreme cold.
(c) The surface should be kept clear of dirt or other dark material, such as oil spots, which will absorb solar radiation and melt into the ice. Puddles of water also absorb heat from the sun and should be “repaired” by filling with snow.
(d) The ice bridge should be checked for cracks daily and on foot, and its thickness measured as outlined in article 3.2. A longitudinal crack more or less down the centre line may occur, particularly if the ice thickness has been increased by flooding. If dry, this crack is not serious. Wet cracks should be repaired immediately and loads reduced until the refreezing process is completed (see article 3.5).
4.5 Operating precautions
4.5.1 Following are a number of general precautions which should be taken when testing for ice thickness or crossing ice covers:
(a) All persons involved in operations over ice covers should be familiar with the hazards involved, the precautions to be taken and the basic rescue techniques required in case of a breakthrough.
(b) Single persons or single vehicles should not venture onto an ice cover when there is no help at hand.
(c) When testing, persons on foot should carry long poles, to be used as an aid to rescue in case of a breakthrough, or alternatively be securely roped together, with minimum spacing of 50 feet (15 m).
(d) Light vehicles used during test periods and initial build-up should be equipped with an extended frame of logs to provide support if the vehicles break through the ice cover.
(e) A rope at least 50 feet (15 m) long, or equivalent to water depth, with a float, may be attached to test vehicles as an aid to marking and recovery.
(f) Vehicle doors and cab hatches should be removed or lashed open; seat belts must NOT be worn.
(g) Adequate spacing must be maintained between vehicles; it is recommended that an interval of at least 100 feet (30 m) be observed.
(h) Vehicle speed should not normally exceed 10 m/h (15 km/h) in order to avoid the effects of the hydrodynamic wave, nor should speed be less than 1 m/h (1.5 km/h) in order to avoid the effects of stationary load.
(i) Where practicable, precautionary and speed limit signs should be erected at each end of the ice bridge, and the route across the ice cover clearly marked.
(j) Where practicable, precautionary and speed limit signs should be erected at each end of the ice bridge, and the route across the ice cover clearly marked.
(k) Equipment required for rescue operations, such as “mats” (chained or wire-linked small logs or heavy planks as a platform for rescue vehicles) jacks, hoists, etc., should be available near by.
(l) Frequently it is the second vehicle in a convoy which encounters ice failure problems. Before a second heavily loaded vehicle proceeds along the ice bridge, it is advisable to have it preceded by a more lightly loaded vehicle to check the route.
(m) For a period of 24 hours after a marked drop in temperature, or following the removal of snow from the ice cover during periods of low temperature, loads should be reduced by 50 per cent and night-time travel should be discouraged.
5. The use of snowmobiles on ice covers
5.1 General
5.1.1 Drownings resulting from snowmobiles going through ice are the greatest single cause of fatalities arising out of the use of these machines. However, snowmobile operations over ice covers can be conducted safely by using common sense and observing the basic precautions.
5.1.2 As the total load - machine, operator and ancillary gear - may weigh approximately 500 pounds (225 kg) or more, a substantial thickness of ice is required for support.
5.1.3 Difficulties in control, steering and stopping are increased on snow-free ice, particularly at higher speeds.
5.2 Operation precautions
5.2.1 The following is an outline of some of the basic precautions:
(a) Where there is an alternative, single machines should not be operated unaccompanied over ice covers.
(b) Should single machine operation be unavoidable, the shore base should be notified of the route to be taken, the destination and probable time of return.
(c) Operations should not be conducted over ice covers less than 6 inches (15 cm) thick.
(d) Operators should know of and avoid locations where currents or springs may cause dangerous thinning of the ice cover.
(e) Fog may indicate the proximity of open water; speed should be reduced and great care taken.
(f) When unexpectedly encountering open water normal action is to slow down, brake gently and turn away; otherwise, turn as sharply as possible. If a turn cannot be made in time or a skid results, the operator should roll off the machine.
(g) Glare from the sun and ice may obscure obstacles or dangerous areas; anti-glare sun glasses should be worn under these conditions.
(h) Operations at night or at high speeds should be restricted to well-marked and known safe trails or crossings.
(i) Unless essential, snowmobiles should not be operated on ice bridges or roads with other types of traffic.
(j) Avoid operating over slush or water-covered ice; but if unavoidable, ensure that the tracks are cleared of ice and slush.
References
Additional technical information concerning ice formation and its use is available in the following publications:
Publication CL1-7-71
Freeze-up and Break-up Dates of Water Bodies in Canada
Information Section
Central Service Directorate
Atmospheric Environment Services
Environment Canada
Technical Memorandum No. 56
The Bearing Strength of Ice
National Research Council
Research Paper No. 469, NRCC 11806
Use of Ice Covers for Transportation
National Research Council
Information and advice may be obtained also from the National Research Council of Canada, Division of Building Research, Geotechnical Section, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0R6.
This chapter replaces chapter 5-3 of PMM volume 12.
Enquiries
Enquiries should be directed to the responsible officers in departments headquarters, who in turn, may seek interpretation from the following:
Safety, Health and Employee Services Group
Staff Relations Division
Human Resources Policy Branch
Treasury Board Secretariat
Appendix A - Thickness of Good Quality Fresh Water Ice
Basic Ice Safety
Our Ice Rescue Technician course emphasizes that stress that “There’s no such thing as safe ice!”
With that in mind, if you must venture onto the ice, here are some very basic guidelines:
- Be sure it is new, clear, hard ice, at least 4” thick, without any air bubbles, snow covering, or moving water underneath.
- Before you go, be sure to carry a whistle to warn others of your distress should you fall through, as well as ice picks (small metal picks on a string that you wear around your neck or keep in your pocket) to help you escape and get back onto solid ice should this occur. These simple items are available for less than $15 at Canadian Tire across Canada.
- Consider wearing a life jacket or float coat of some kind whenever on surface ice.
- Should an animal fall through the ice, don’t attempt to rescue the animal yourself. Call 911 and wait for professional rescuers to arrive, who are trained and equipped for this type of incident. A large percentage of drownings are of people trying to rescue pets who have fallen into rivers or through the ice.
- Remember, the leading cause of death among snowmobilers ... is drowning! Contrary to widespread belief, speed is not a sure bet for crossing surface ice and can actually cause you to break through in many conditions.
- Finally, consider a two-day Ice Rescue course for $349, to learn more about operating safely on frozen bodies of water and how to rescue yourself if you break through.
Have a safe winter season!
Tips on Creating First Aid Kits
Tips to Help Create an Ideal First Aid Kit for you
Rule #1 - “The Context Equals the Content”
For many people, they just want a “good first aid kit in their pack, because they need one.” A good comparison is to look in someone’s car. Some people are comfortable adding oil and jumping a dead battery, so they carry extra oil and jumper cables, some people do not. It usually is the person who has had experience and training that carries the appropriate amount with them, either in their car, or their backpacks. How do you know what to carry? Besides your experience in the environment in which your traveling, you are now getting training to help you handle emergency situations. These are by far the most important components.
Now, to put together the “tools” that you will need. As superb as manufactured kits are, you will probably want to customize one, or build your own kit, using the context of its use as the major criteria. Other factors include:
Remember the Three Mechanisms of Injury:
The First Aid Kit
The kit itself needs to fit the environment and group’s needs. Carrying a dry box on a backpacking trip can really be a memorable experience. Or the “biology experiment”, that greets you when you open up a wet kit in an emergency. The kit needs to be organized and waterproof, accessible in an emergency, and user friendly. Some groups, such as commercial raft companies, carry “minor med kits” on individual boats, and a “major med kit” in the sweep boat. In smaller groups, usually the person with the most medical training, or the trip leader will carry the kit. In these situations, it is always good to know whom you have with you (medical history), and where their medications are, if necessary.
Let’s get to the kit -
Carrying Device - One that works best for you, and the environment in which you travel. Dry Bag/Box, fanny pack, compartmentalized pouch, ziplock bags, etc.
Personal Protection - it is generally a good idea to have these at easy access. Gloves can be placed in various places in your pack, or on yourself, such as a lifejacket in a film canister, etc.
Wound Care - this is probably the most used portion of the kit:
Wound Cleansing - a must in any remote setting needs to be done well and often. What is needed now is Povidine Iodine (PI) used in a solution with water, to adequately irrigate the wound and surrounding area. In many kits, PI is in the form of pre-soak pads that pack well, but you need quite a few to make the proper solution with water (looks like weak iced tea). Be careful of carrying it in bottles, it will leak. And, in cold environments it will freeze. There is are some people who are allergic to iodine, so check your medical history first. Alternatives that have an alcohol base usually have a tendency to “sting” or “burn” if applied directly to a wound. There are some good biodegradable camping soaps, as well as medical “scrubs” that can be used for cleansing around wounds. The most important factor here is copious amounts of water for washing off residue. A irrigation syringe, 12cc to 60cc, works great for washing out wounds, as well as, a corner cut off a ziplock, which is squeezed like a cake decorator. Wound closing is an option when the person needs to be able to walk or paddle with a minor injury. The risk of infection is greater when the wound is close, so prior wound cleansing is vital. Butterfly bandages, Steri-strips, or even cloth tape can be used.
Splinting - is probably the most improvised skill there is. Ensolite pads, lifejackets, packs, paddles, ski poles, etc. all make great splints. The key here is to make sure you use the injured’s equipment first! There is nothing worse then watching the helicopter fly away, after a successful rescue, with your sleeping pad wrapped around a person’s unstable leg injury. The two best commercial splints going for extremity splinting, is the 36” Sam Splint (foam covered aluminum), and the aluminum wire splint. You will also need a way of securing the splint to the injured. Ace wraps, Coban, Kling, and triangular bandages all work well. And, don’t forget the duct tape. Remember to watch for constriction, comfort, and compatibility.
Blister Care - the key here is prevention. At the first sign of a hot spot, care should be taken. Personal preferences include, moleskin, molefoam, first aid tape, and duct tape to prevent blisters from forming. Once a blister forms, the care changes to open wound care, with wound cleansing and proper bandaging.
Hardware - this the stuff that can make someone a hero for being able to pull out a splinter, or make an emergency shelter.
Medications - the legalities of using medications should not be taken lightly. Adequate training, written policies and procedures and medical control should all be considered. The big problem is that it is much easier to put the medicine in, then it is to take it out.
* General amounts for the usual day trip or weekend trip. If you can not be resupplied easily, such as a month long expedition or voyage, it is probably good to triple all these amounts. Program first aid kits that have youth at risk for clients will probably have more wound care materials than a expedition group of experienced participants, etc. There are no hard and fast rules to quantity, only your experience, your training, and your judgment. So, after looking over your kit, and you don’t see “enough” povodine iodine pads, you are customizing your kit to your needs.
Finally, Putting This All Together
The First aid kit must be well organized, weather proof, accessible in an emergency, and user friendly. There are many good ways to approach this concept. The simplest way to organize is to separate your bandages, dressings, meds, etc. with ziplocks, or some sort of waterproof dividers. Writing what’s in the bag can help when the adrenaline is pumping, or some people even color code what is what. Having gloves, pocket mask, and other protection readily available is very important. Knowing what you can improvise with can also make an accident situation go more smoothly. Being able to quickly grab the ensolite, duct tape, and shears can greatly reduce the stress of the moment. Not only is the first aid kit itself important, it is how easily you can assemble all your resources.
Suggested Personal First Aid Kit List
1 - roll 1” cloth tape
4 - 4” x 4”, or 3” x 3” general gauze pads
2 - non-adherent gauze pads
1 - 8” x 7” combine (bulk) dressing
8 - band-aid bandages
2 - 3” or 4” stretch roller gauze
3 - 3” or 4” occlusive dressings
2 - triangular bandages
1 - 4” ace wrap
1 - Sam Splint or wire splint
4pr - vinyl exam gloves
1 - CPR pocket mask w/ 1 way valve or shield
1 - Airways, nasal and/or airway
1 - blister kit (personal preference)
5 - povodine iodine packets
1 - trauma scissors
1 - splinter tweezers
1 - thermometer
1 - med kit (personal preference)
1 - blanket pin
2 - safety pins
1 - 12 to 60cc syringe
1 - 20-30’ duct tape
Starting a Swiftwater Rescue Team
The pelting rain is so strong that windshield wipers can’t keep up. The painful, terrified scream of a youthful voice echoes from what was once a road, but is now a raging river. Perched atop a brown Suburban sits little Emily, clutching the roof rack and calling for help while deafening water pounds past the semi-submerged car.
What has happened here? Did a dam break? Is it the freak storm of the century? Or is this only one in a string of flooding events that have besieged Emily’s community?
The real question is how prepared are you to deal with a situation such as the one described above?
With the exception of fires, swiftwater and flood events are the most common and widespread of natural disasters and threaten communities in virtually every corner of the planet. Unfortunately, it is routine for those of us in the rescue profession to hear from unprepared agencies immediately following a swiftwater rescue or flood that caught them off-guard. It might have been a major event, but more often it was a simple rescue that went bad because the rescuers lacked the knowledge, skill and equipment to deal with it. Frequently the story will include a close call that almost cost the life of a rescuer.
The good news is that in recent years many more agencies are beginning to realize the need to plan ahead for swiftwater and flood events. Whether you work for a large metropolitan department or a small volunteer organization, if you are thinking about starting a swiftwater rescue program for your agency, this article will outline some important considerations that will enhance your success.
1.Community Needs Assessment
2.Program Design
3.Training
4.Management Systems
5.Sufficient Personnel
6.Equipment
Once you have addressed these six topics, you should have a good idea what kind of a swiftwater rescue program is needed in your area as well as the steps required to make it a reality.
Community Needs Assessment
The first question that must be asked is how much of a need exists in your area for a swiftwater rescue program. While most of us would like to train and equip a fully-staffed specialty team for every hazard from HAZMAT to confined space rescue, this goal is simply not in the budget for most departments. Therefore, prioritizing your department’s rescue needs is vital. Creating a realistic needs assessment for swiftwater rescue can really help to focus your efforts, as well as answering a number of questions from the number of personnel, to the level of training and type of equipment that will be needed.
It is necessary to both research past occurrences and anticipate future needs. In order to do this you will probably have to do a little sleuthing. Start out by looking for information on past incidents. One great resource is Environment Canada or your provincial environment ministry, which will have historical records of flood events. Your local newspaper and other media archives may also hold a wealth of information. While it is helpful to document information about the big events, it is also vital to start a database of any documented rescues. You may find that a single feature in your community as innocuous as a popular jumping spot or short stretch of river has been responsible for numerous deaths or near misses over a period of several decades.
In addition to official records, there may be one or more organizations that have institutionalized knowledge relevant to your research. Seek interviews with those involved. The most obvious organization to research is your own, but include all standard first response agencies; local police, fire, search and rescue, etc. There could also be other less obvious sources of information such as local, provincial or national parks services, Coast Guard, provincial emergency management, recreational clubs and private guides. Your research should also include statutory roles and responsibilities of the various agencies, as well as their response capabilities and guidelines. What you are attempting to do is establish a realistic picture of the frequency and severity of swiftwater rescues and flood events in your community, as well as assess current rescue capabilities at the local level.
Designing Your Swiftwater Rescue Program
Armed with the information in your needs assessment, it is time to determine where your department fits into the whole scenario and how prepared you are at present to fill any identified needs.
If you find that flooding and swiftwater rescues are virtually unheard of, or that another department or agency already has swiftwater rescue adequately covered, then why create a redundant system? In this case, be willing to accept that your energies might be better spent on other priorities. However, for the rest of you, once a need is identified and you have made a conscious decision to fill it, the real work is just starting.
Before we start talking about the fun stuff (training and toys) it’s important to note that there are a number of ways that we can address the issues identified in a needs assessment. While creating a service delivery model is important, it is equally important to remember that preventing the need for rescue is one of the best rescue tools. Although arguably not as sexy as starting a specialty rescue team, public education is a very effective place to invest your time and money. One related example is in the area of pool drowning. One community took note that backyard pools were the leading cause of drowning and wisely chose to invest in programs aimed at increasing public awareness of pool safety. Had this community chosen to address drowning solely by improving response capabilities, there is little doubt the outcome would have been less impressive.
Another avenue is the creation of new laws and regulations. The State of Arizona has had such a problem with motorist attempting to cross flooded streets that it passed what is universally referred to as the “stupid motorist law”. Under this law municipalities and rescue agencies can charge people for the cost of being rescued if they fail to observe posted warning signs. Such approaches have proven to be very successful.
Unfortunately, even with community education and regulations, emergency response capabilities are a necessity. However, the level of service can vary, based on the results of your needs assessment, as well as the amount of time, energy and budget you’re able to commit (see “Training” below)
While public education, laws and effective emergency response can be used alone, the combination of the three works extremely well. The trick is identifying the problems through your needs assessment and creating an appropriate response model utilizing a combination of the three that maximizes program effectiveness to create the best results.
Training
Once you have designed your program, it’s time to start thinking about training. The first step is selecting an operating level, kind of like determining your scope of practice. The National Fire Protect Association (NFPA) 1670 Standard on Technical Rescue suggests that each agency should select from one of three operational levels: Awareness, Operations or Technician.
The Awareness level is the most basic of the three operational levels. Agencies choosing this level are focussed more on training their members what not to do in a rescue situation. Awareness training introduces them to many of the hazards associated with swiftwater rescue, and the knowledge they receive is more theoretical in nature (delivered in a lecture setting as opposed to through in-water practice). Thus personnel trained to this level are not classified as rescuers, but the training does help insure that they are not added to the list of casualties. This is an excellent approach for those communities with very infrequent swiftwater rescue occurrences.
So what can an Awareness level organization do for the victims? Awareness personnel have the knowledge to call in the appropriate resources, as identified in your needs assessment. In the event that absolutely no swiftwater rescue resources are available, then you may want to consider training up to the Operations level. Short of that, Awareness level training is more vital than ever. Without training, would-be rescuers are far more likely to improvise if they know no other help is on the way, which can lead to disastrous results. Awareness level training is intended to help the non-rescuer fight the natural urge to do something, if it is dangerous.
The next step up is the Operations level. This level is designed for those organizations that want to allow their members to perform low-risk rescues – a compromise between the extremes of no rescue and a high-risk capable team. In short, Operations level rescuers are trained for shore- and boat-based rescues. These capabilities are comparatively inexpensive to train for and offer a good level of success for the investment.
The third and most complex level is Technician. Technician level organizations offer the most capability. It encompasses all of the Operations skills, as well as a full range of in-water contact rescue capabilities and full knowledge of technical rope systems. The ability to utilize ropes in the swiftwater environment involves training beyond that required for standard Rope Technicians. Not surprisingly, the Technician level involves far more training and specialized equipment then the Operations level. However, the payoff is that the Technical level offers top-notch capability.
Keep in mind that there is a world of difference between open water and swiftwater. Resources such as a boat or a dive component require additional training for a swiftwater environment. For example, a Public Safety Diver Certification is required for swiftwater divers, as standard divers have no business in swiftwater, much less floodwater.
When deciding on which of the three levels to choose, it is important to be realistic in your expectations. Because of the expense of training someone to the Technician level, it is common for agencies to want to focus on a small number of personnel and form a specialty team. While there is no question that having Technician level team can save lives, most successful swiftwater rescues occur immediately or not at all. If you anticipate other resources arriving ahead of your swiftwater team, you may want to consider including them in your formula. Many agencies have found that providing all first responders with some level of training is the most effective solution
Does that mean that if you decide that your goal is Technician level capabilities that everyone must be trained to the Technician level? The answer is a resounding no. Most experts agree that more Operations level personnel are needed to assist a fewer number of Technician level personnel. Generally, a ratio of three Operations people to one Technician has proven adequate. Further, Awareness level personnel can provide many non-Operational support and logistical functions. This formula is not much different than the one used by most fire departments for staffing ALS engine companies. One paramedic per engine is plenty.
Most agencies choose not to form a centralized swiftwater specialty team, rather they spread knowledge and skill levels throughout the organization. The term “team member” then becomes a reference to any personnel trained above the awareness level. Also keep in mind that the operating level (Awareness, Operations, or Technician) is a target for the organization as a whole, not a description of the minimum training for each and every member of the organization.
One final point on training, remember not to leave management out of the training loop. Having department management trained to at least the Awareness level is vital to having a good team. This will provide a baseline understanding of the challenges facing the field rescuers, and when managers show up to “help”, they need to know enough to stay out of harm’s way. Further, anyone filling the Incident Safety Officer role must be trained to the level of the rescuers.
Management System
After you’ve decided on the level of training, it is time to start thinking about how you plan to manage a swiftwater rescue emergency. Hopefully you already utilize a Management System on emergency scenes, but regardless of whether you do or not, here is something you might want to think about.
To start with you may want to consider adopting an Incident Command System (ICS) if you haven’t already done so. The United States is quickly moving toward a single, comprehensive national incident management system at the state, territorial, tribal and local levels. Given that there could soon come a day when such a national approach is adopted in Canada and given that the NFPA 1670 standard has emerged as the de-facto global standard for technical rescue incidents, it makes sense to get ahead of the curve by using NPFA standards as the basis for all management decisions today.
Sufficient Personnel
No matter how you go about it, insuring the response of an adequate number of rescuers is a major commitment. Vacations, illness and injuries can render a program useless if there is not an ongoing commitment to keeping the number of trained personnel up to par. Make sure you have enough trained and equipped personnel to handle a swiftwater rescue incident on every shift every day of the year. As we all know rescue incidents don’t wait for 9 to 5 Monday through Saturday. The rescuers selected also need to be willing to take the time and effort to remain current and practiced on the demanding skills and techniques that will be required of them. Many agencies have turned to incentive pay in order to recruit sufficient numbers.
Equipment
Now it’s time to give our rescuers the tools they need. It is suggested that you hold off on purchasing equipment (other than the personal protective equipment needed for training) until after your team has completed their initial training. Time and again well meaning purchasing agents have ordered equipment only to receive a brand new wish list of equipment from freshly trained personnel. Worse yet, the equipment bought before the training may even be unsuitable or even unsafe for the intended use. During training, personnel will get a chance to use many types and brands of equipment and will acquire the knowledge to make educated decisions about the equipment that will best meet their specific needs.
While an initial investment in equipment will be necessary, do not go overboard. Allow the team to gain some experience and plan to reinvest on a regular basis. This will give them the ability to identify those items truly useful to their specific needs, and will serve them better than a one-time investment. Further, the one-time investment does not take equipment turnover into account.
The next question that needs to be asked is: does your team need a boat? In most swiftwater and flood environments a boat will improve your capabilities ten-fold. One of the biggest decisions that may face your new team is whether or not to purchase one, and one of the most common questions asked is what type of boat is best. Sorry, but there is no “best”. Each community is different and you will need to research this yourself as it is a complex decision beyond the scope of this article. There are an infinite number of watercraft (and not all of them are even classified as boats) that could best fit your needs, so do your research carefully.
Conclusion
After fighting to start your team, it will still be the ongoing struggle to keep the team viable over time that will ultimately prove to be your greatest challenge. Ongoing operational costs, recruitment and skill retention are all very real challenges that can render all your efforts useless within a few short years.
Be honest with yourself about your ability to keep up with the ongoing demands of running a successful swiftwater rescue program. But if you do and the rain falls, or the waters rise, and your team makes what would have been an extremely dangerous rescue look easy, you’ll know that it has all been worth it.
Phil Turnbull has 32 years experience in the field of fire rescue, 23 of which he has served as a Chief Officer. Phil is also a swiftwater rescue Instructor Trainer for Rescue 3 International.
The History of the PFD
On a recent business trip to London’s British Museum my daughter and I came across several rooms of massive limestone slabs. They showed narrative scenes carved in low relief and had once decorated the palaces of Assyrian kings. The carvings depicted battles, hunting expeditions and other memorable events of the Assyrian Empire who dominated the near east for several hundred years until its collapse in 612 BCE. The empire once stretched from the Mediterranean Sea to Egypt, Syria, parts of Iran and Turkey.
Inflated Goat Skins
I was particularly drawn to a couple of scenes that were carved sometime between 865-860 BCE. These reliefs depicted the Assyrians’ enemies struggling to cross the Euphrates River while under attack by Assyrian archers.
Being in the water rescue business, what fascinated me was that these soldiers were swimming the river supported by inflated goat skins. The scenes show an amazing amount of detail; you can clearly see the soldiers swimming with one arm while holding the inflated goat skin around them with the other.
As I stood there mesmerized by these scenes, I began to wonder if I was looking at evidence of the first personal flotation device (PFD). This then led me to reflect on how far water safety had advanced from the PFG (personal flotation goat) to the wide variety of the modern PFD (personal flotation device) on the market today.
Down with the Ship
When I returned home I began to research the origins of the modern day PFD. Aside from the Assyrian carvings, there were relatively few references to life preservers before the 19th century. One of the few I found states that “in earliest years of development [life preservers] were nothing more that a wood plank used by Norwegian seamen, an empty barrel or even a vest of cork blocks.” This left me seriously wondering what happened to the PFG. Was it an invention which came before its time, which, like many such ideas, was buried in the archives of history? Even so, there had to have been a need for some form of flotation device.
Throughout the ages one of the greatest obstacles to mankind has been water. Whether it’s a river or an ocean, people invariably needed to cross bodies of water, and, unlike today, many lacked the ability to swim. For example, prior to 1900, over half of the sailors in the British Navy did not know how to swim. This fact was portrayed in the recent hit movie Master and Commander. The movie, which is about a British ship in the late 1800s, shows how the sailors would lower nets into the water so that the sailors who couldn’t swim would be able to enter the water to bathe with relative ease.
So, despite the brief use of the Personal Flotation Goat, it seems that for a majority of man’s history our forefathers found themselves in water without the skills or equipment to keep themselves safe.
Wood to Steel
According to one historical theory, the modern precursor to the PFD came about because of technological advancements. One important development was the transition in the construction of seagoing vessels from wood to steel. If a sailor on a wooden ship went into the sea, it was usually the result of a catastrophic occurrence such as a shipwreck, an attack by pirates, or an assault from an enemy nation. If this happened, the sea would most likely be filled with debris that could be used for flotation. However, with the invention of more durable hulls, floating debris could no longer be counted on to save someone’s life. Therefore, sailors started to carry something that floated with them in the event they inadvertently entered the water.
Mr. Guerrin’s Waistcoat
This change in boat construction coincides with the apparent evolution of the PFD. Though the Norwegians used wood planks and cork blocks, the earliest evidence of anything resembling a modern version of the PFD appeared in the 1800s.
According to the United States Patent Office, Napoleon Edouard Guerin of New York City, New York was issued a patent for “Improvement in Buoyant Dresses or Life-Preservers” on November 16, 1841. Mr. Guerin’s design was for a jacket, waistcoat, or coat made of cotton or other material (double layered) that could receive eighteen to twenty quarts of rasped or grated cork (a profile of the rasp was even included in the patent drawings.) As you can see from the picture, the modern PFD greatly resembles Mr. Guerin’s waistcoat.
From historical accounts, it seems that Mr. Guerin’s invention was right for the times. In the United States in the early 1800’s, the waterways were one of the main means for traversing the country. Because of the growing number of customers and commercial carriers accidents were an increasing in number, including dramatic and deadly steamboat explosions.
Kapok, Balsa and Cork
As a result, Congress passed requirements in 1852 that all steamboats or commercial carriers had to carry a PFD for every passenger on board. They also created a Board of Supervising Inspectors to see that this law was carried out. This board was also responsible for specifying the material and design for the PFD. They wrote a number of regulations, such as one that said a PFD should be “furnished with ready and suitable means for secure attachment to the body of the person, or enable people to hold themselves securely hereto.” Throughout the coming years, the Board continued to amend regulations. They made changes like adding a requirement for shoulder straps, eliminating the use of loose granulated cork, and banning the use of metal components because those pieces might be damaged through carelessness or oxidation.
Components such as material, buoyancy, form and even shape of the PFD continued to change over the next 75 years. Kapok, a natural fiber which comes from the seed of a tropical tree, was first used for buoyancy in 1902. However, it was banned in 1904 when it was found to be flammable and tended to lose buoyancy rapidly when compressed during storage. Even so, the developers of kapok didn’t give up and reintroduced a significantly modified version in 1918. Additionally, in the 1920s, balsa wood was approved for use in PFDs. It was lightweight, highly buoyant and had a long useful life.
Even with the introduction of kapok and balsa wood, the use of cork-block remained the standard against which all other PFDs were measured. This changed in 1928 when the British passenger steamer, Vestris sunk, and many of the passengers on board perished. The following year the International Convention for Safety of Life at Sea convened in London to hear testimony from rescuers. They testified that they found many bodies floating face down even though they were wearing cork life vests. As a result, it was recommended that kapok life jackets be required for the merchant marines because they kept an unconscious individual’s face and head above water. Even with this recommendation, cork vests remained the mainstay on most vessels until WWII.
Mae West and the Inflatables
The onset of World War II spawned extensive development in many areas from medicine to nuclear physics. Water safety was no exception. The first inflatable jackets came into use and were worn by air crews, sailors and submariners. One of the most famous types of inflatable PFD was worn around the neck with an inflatable bladder on the front and was activated either with a CO2 charge or by oral inflation. The Royal Air Force called it the “Mae West” after a famous actress of the time. The nickname came from the fact that, when inflated, the Mae West resembled a certain part of the actresses anatomy for which she was quite famous. With the research and developments derived from military technology, the modern PFD was born.
During the same area, legislation was also being passed concerning PFDs. In 1940, the United States passed the Motorboat Act. This act required that all vessels, (not just commercial crafts) carry some form of PFD for passengers and crew. It soon became apparent that the bulky and uncomfortable PFDs designed for large rivers and seagoing vessels did not adapt well to the ever increasing number of recreational boaters. As a result, the United States Coast Guard (USCG) recommended that the designs for PFDs used in recreational vessels be able to support a person for shorter periods of time than those required for seagoing vessels. Their logic was that if the PFD was less bulky and more readily available, people might use them more frequently.
Specialty Jackets
However, in 1964 the USCG determined that many of the recreational boaters’ needs were still not being met. They developed a “special purpose” category to offer minimum restriction while still accommodating boaters’ specific needs. Some examples of “special purpose” PFD’s that have been developed for this category include the Rescuer PFD (or live-bait jacket), water skier lifejackets, kayaker lifejackets and ocean survival suits. The USCG currently has five types of flotation device classifications in use today. They are as follows:
- Type I: offshore lifejacket for extended survival in rough open water that will turn a person face-up.
- Type II: the classic PFD for calm inland waters and is less bulky and less expensive.
- Type III: the most comfortable PFD with styles for different boating activities and sports.
- Type IV: a throwable device such as a cushion, ring or horseshoe buoys.
- Type V: special use device that include vests, deck suits and hybrids for restricted use.
Light and Easy
In the 1960s, synthetic foams were introduced and quickly began to be used by PFD manufacturers. It allowed designers more flexibility in the form, style, and shape of the PFD. While some worn today may resemble the cork vest of 150 years ago, research and development as well as technological advances are making today’s lifevests more reliable, lighter, and easier to maintain.
While I am still not quite sure why the personal flotation goat didn’t sweep the globe in 800 BCE and become a mainstay on every river and sea traveling vessel, it is fascinating to see the correlations between modern technology and ancient adaptation. The fact that these ancient limestone slabs have survived for so long leads me to wonder what other form of flotation devices have been used over the past several thousand years and were lost to history.
However, what little we do know about the evolution of the PFD over the centuries is a testament to human creativity and adaptation. It amazes me that with this wonderful device readily available, people still choose to ignore it and as a result lose their lives. However, I can’t even begin to fathom how many people have been saved by the PFD and couldn’t imagine doing my job without one. And to think…it all began with a dead goat.
J. Michael Turnbull is the President of Rescue 3 International, the global leader in technical rescue training on land, water and in the air.
Check out this great Canadian website for a modern take on the “PFG”. Lots of information on choosing and wearing PFDs. http://www.wearalifejacket.com
Car in the Water
By Slim Ray, CFS Press
That Sunday evening of October 4th, seven to ten inches of rain in a few hours had forced the creek out of its banks and over the bridge on which Hudson’s and several other cars were then crossing. Hudson, whose body was found the next day, was unfortunately not alone. Two other cars besides his were washed off the bridge, taking six other people to their deaths with them. By the time the night was over, a total of twelve people had drowned in the Kansas City area, ten of them either in their cars or trying to escape from them. A number of other drivers narrowly escaped.
While these incidents in Kansas City made up one of the worst swiftwater disasters in recent years, they were far from unique. Cars, either swept off a flooded street or running off an embankment into the water, are the most common type of swiftwater emergency in the U.S. In this article we’ll cover the causes of and responses to the first type of accident and leave cars in deeper water for later.
Roughly 75% of the cars are swept away at night or during periods of poor visibility, in part because judging the speed and depth of muddy water at night is extremely difficult. Many swiftwater rescues start this way—a driver, not wanting to take a lengthy detour, ignores a barricade and tries to cross a flooded street. The water is flowing swiftly across the pavement, but it doesn’t look that deep. The car enters the water, which quickly reaches the doors. Just when it seems to be coming back up out of the water, the engine suddenly speeds up and the steering wheel goes slack. As the driver watches helplessly the car begins heading toward the nearby creek, which is flooding out of its banks.
Behavior of cars in swiftwater
What does it take to float a car? A rough rule of thumb is that each foot of water pushes against the broad side of a typical car with about 500 lbf (227 kgf) of force and displaces about 1,500 lbs (680 kg). Thus, two feet (less than a meter) of water will float most cars. However, a car can be washed away in less, depending on variables such as the speed of the current, the design of the car, whether the car is sideways or end-on to the current, and the type of bottom. For example, where the current is swift, the bottom hard and smooth, and the car’s body low to the ground, as little as one foot (30 cm) of water with a speed of 6 mph (10 km/hr) or 10 feet per second (3 m/sec) will move most cars. On the other hand, if the car is heavy and has plenty of ground clearance, the bottom is sand or gravel, and the current slow, it may take deeper water to move the car.
The type of river bottom has a lot to do with a partially-submerged car’s behavior in the water. If the bottom is slick with no obstructions (e.g., pavement or concrete), the car is very likely to continue to slide or roll, especially if it is broadside to the current. This can be very dangerous to both the occupants and rescuers, since a sudden weight shift to the downstream side can cause the car to roll. Those inside the car should practice the reverse high side, that is, keeping their weight on the upstream side of the car to keep it from rolling. If the bottom is soft, however (e.g., sand or gravel), the water will quickly excavate the soil under the tires so that the car’s chassis rests on the riverbed. This results in a more stable situation in which the car is much less likely to roll. If the bottom is really soft (e.g. mud) the car often ends up buried engine-end first in the mud with the other end out of the water. Once the car stops moving, it then acts like any other river obstacle, except that is much more likely to move unexpectedly.
Rescue considerations
The rescuer’s first thoughts should be to stabilize the vehicle so that it does not either roll or float downstream, and to get PFDs to the passengers. If the situation is marginal, the weight shift as the passengers are being rescued may cause the car to move. To prevent this, rescuers should attach stabilizing ropes to the car. If possible, these ropes should go to both banks. Rescuers should also routinely dispatch a tow truck (or two) to any incident involving a car in the water.
Once the car is stabilized, the rescue can begin. Rescuers should follow the same Reach-Throw-Row-Go sequence as with any other swiftwater rescue, and attempt to minimize the exposure of their personnel. Sometimes the car can be reached by fire ladders or with an aerial ladder, allowing the victims to climb to safety or be picked off. If the rescuers need to approach the car directly, whether by wading, swimming, or boat, they should do so from downstream, using the eddy that the car creates. Rescuers should, however, exercise caution until the car is stabilized, especially on hard bottoms, since the car may slide or roll over downstream at any time. In most cases, however, the roll will be a slow one, giving an alert rescuer time to escape.
If the victims end up on top of the car, they can be treated like any other stranded victims, although with the understanding that their car may not be a very stable refuge. In other cases, rescuers may have to break the car windows to get to them. While there are a number of exciting videos showing victims being plucked from the tops of cars with helicopters, this should, as always, be considered a high-risk option.
It is worth practicing and preplanning this type of rescue, since it is one that rescuers may be called upon to do at any time with scant notice.
Slim Ray is an internationally-recognized authority on flood, swiftwater and whitewater safety and rescue, including course development and instruction with Rescue 3 International, Canyonlands Field Institute, and the Nantahala Outdoor Center. For more articles and books written by Slim Ray, see CFS Press. This article originally appeared in Fire & Rescue Magazine (UK).
Moving Water and Ice - A Deadly Combination
By Slim Ray, CFS Press
Rescuers must be protected from the cold, both on shore and in the water. Obviously, a shore-based rescue that keeps rescuers out of the water is preferable if at all possible. If an in-water rescue is decided upon, rescuers must be given anti-exposure protection. However, many of the “Gumby” anti-exposure suits, meant for offshore use, are simply too bulky for swiftwater use. While newer, more flexible suits like the Mustang “Ice Commander” show promise, rescuers may end up using conventional swiftwater dry suits with insulating clothing underneath, which will limit their time in the water.
Floating ice chunks add to the hazards the rescue, and make normal rescue methods like “live bait” swimming rescue or boat-based rescues extremely difficult. It is imperative to have spotters stationed upstream to warn rescuers in the water if they are in danger of being hit. Floating ice may also foul any lines placed to stabilize the car or evacuate the victims. In addition, rescuers should be alert to keep rescuers clear of solid ice shelves downstream under which they might be swept.
On-shore warm-up facilities for both victim and rescuers are essential. While casualties will be transported immediately to medical support, an on-site tent for rescuers will make life easier for everyone and reduce the chance of hypothermia. Casualties who appear lifeless may still be revived—the rule is that no one is considered dead until they are warm and dead.
Slim Ray is an internationally-recognized authority on flood, swiftwater and whitewater safety and rescue, including course development and instruction with Rescue 3 International, Canyonlands Field Institute, and the Nantahala Outdoor Center. For more articles and books written by Slim Ray, see CFS Press. This article originally appeared in Fire & Rescue Magazine (UK).
